Emerging Technologies And Their Impact On Women Reproductive Rights And Healthcare

Gene editing, which enables scientists to tweak genes to eliminate hereditary illnesses or increase particular qualities, is one of the most important advancements in reproductive science. The morality of changing an embryo's genetic makeup raises ethical concerns regarding this technique, even while it has the potential to eradicate inherited disorders and enhance quality of life. In addition, there is a chance that unforeseen consequences would hurt future generations. Therefore, it is essential to carefully regulate this technology and make sure that any ethical and safety issues are resolved before it is widely used. [1]

Artificial wombs, which allow a fetus to develop outside of a woman's body, are another hopeful technological advancement. Although this technology may help women who are unable to carry a pregnancy or who are carrying high-risk babies, it also raises moral and ethical concerns. For instance, there are worries about the psychological repercussions of carrying a fetus in an artificial womb because it may affect the development of the embryo and the attachment between the mother and child. Additionally, it's important to make sure that this technology doesn't replace natural pregnancy or serve as a means of controlling women's bodies.

Another exciting research that could enhance the results of fertility therapies is the application of CRISPR in reproductive medicine. However, this technology also brings up issues with safety and morality regarding the production of 'designer babies. It is critical to make sure that the ethical issues raised by the use of CRISPR in reproductive medicine are thoroughly addressed and that its rigorous monitoring.

Furthermore, especially for underserved communities or those residing in remote areas, these cutting-edge reproductive technologies are enhancing access to reproductive healthcare. For instance, telemedicine can offer remote consultations and medications, lowering the obstacles for women living in rural or distant places to receive reproductive healthcare. Additionally, women may have simple access to contraceptive information and reminders thanks to mobile health technologies like smartphone apps.

However, it is important to carefully analyze the legal and ethical ramifications of these technologies, especially with relation to concerns about informed consent, privacy, and equity in access to these technologies. People must be adequately educated about the advantages and risks of modern technologies, and their privacy must be respected. Furthermore, it is essential to guarantee that all women, regardless of socioeconomic status or geographic location, have access to these technologies.

So, it is important to take into account how new reproductive technologies will affect women's reproductive rights. Fundamental human rights including physical and reproductive autonomy must be upheld. These technologies should be utilized to empower women and enhance the results of their reproductive health, not to control or limit their choices.

From Ancient Times: Aristotle's Dichotomies In Reproduction Theory

The "epigenetic" nature of Aristotle's model stems from his belief that the embryo is formed from amorphous material with an outside-provided driving force. In the 17th and 18th centuries, when the clockwork cosmos was embraced by Enlightenment scientific thought, the epigenetic idea was supplanted by the "preformation" dogma.[2]

According to preformationists, the fetus's form is already present in the egg, and the sperm from the father acts as a growth stimulant, hence fetal development consists exclusively of the growth or unfolding of pre-existing features. The discovery of sperm and its subsequent identification as the male equivalent to the egg led to the swift rejection of this notion. Preformationist theory, which posits that the female's role is limited to providing nourishment and a safe place for the embryo to form, has long been used to justify sexism and gender inequality.

Recognizing the equal importance of each parent's role in a child's growth might help us reframe this dilemma. The concept of reproduction needs to be built on cooperation and equality between both parents rather than on the idea of male superiority and female passivity. In pregnancy, a woman is more than just a source of food and resources; she is an essential co-creator of a human being. Reproductive science can be better understood if we reframe these binaries in more inclusive and nuanced ways.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle made substantial contributions to a number of disciplines, including philosophy, biology, and ethics. Even though he didn't address the theory of reproduction specifically, his philosophical framework contains a number of dichotomies that can be used to examine reproduction. We can better comprehend the intricacies and various facets of reproductive theory by using these dichotomies. The following Aristotelian dichotomies can be used to analyse the reproduction theory:

Aristotle's theory of form and matter can be used to explain how reproduction occurs by taking into account the change from potential to actuality. The male and female gametes (matter) mix during reproduction to create a new organism with its distinct traits (form). The process of transformation and the part genetic material plays in influencing the emergence of new life are both highlighted by this duality.

Reproduction theory may benefit from Aristotle's difference between actuality and potentiality, which refers to what something is now and what it has the potential to become. The actualization of potential life is a component of reproduction. The female reproductive system has the capacity to get pregnant and carry a child, and during reproduction, this capacity is actualized.

Active and Passive: Reproductive responsibilities can be categorised as either active or passive according to Aristotle. Traditionally, the female is viewed as the passive or "receptive" agent, providing the environment for the development of the embryo, while the male is seen as the active or "generative" agent, delivering the seed or sperm. Modern reproductive theory has challenged this distinction since it oversimplifies the complexity of reproductive processes and ignores the active responsibilities played by women in reproduction.

Aristotle made a distinction between organic processes and human creations in his work Natural and Artificial. This contrast between natural conception and assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs), such as in vitro fertilisation (IVF) or surrogacy, can be employed in the context of reproduction. The ethical ramifications of interfering with the body's natural reproductive processes and the prospective effects of technology breakthroughs on human reproduction are discussed in Aristotle's framework.

Constitutional Provision

There are constitutional clauses that can be used to defend women's healthcare and reproductive rights more broadly. There are several provisions and rules in the Indian constitution that have a big impact on how women's healthcare and reproductive rights are shaped. The right to life and personal liberty (Article 21) includes the freedom of reproductive choice and access to healthcare. Women have equal access to reproductive healthcare without facing discrimination based on their gender, thanks to the equality and non-discrimination principles outlined in Article 14. Even if it isn't expressly stated in the Constitution, the judiciary has backed the recognition of the right to privacy, protecting the confidentiality of reproductive decisions. But the adoption of new technologies also raises ethical and legal concerns. It involves issues like privacy, consent, equality, and discrimination. Inappropriate use of these technologies has the potential to exacerbate gender inequality, violate women's autonomy, and enable discriminatory practises including sex-selection in medical settings and the commercialization of reproductive services.

Article 14's Right to Equality ensures everyone's equality before the law and outlaws discrimination. In the context of reproductive rights and healthcare, it can be used to challenge any discriminatory practises or regulations that result from the usage of developing technology.

The fundamental right to life and personal liberty (Article 21) includes a woman's ability to make decisions about her own body, including reproductive options. The Indian Supreme Court has construed it to include the right to obtain safe and authorised abortion services.

Informed Consent: Women are free to make fully informed decisions about their reproductive health. Making sure women are appropriately informed about the dangers, benefits, and restrictions of developing technologies is crucial. Gaining informed consent in a way that upholds women's autonomy and ensures their knowledge and voluntariness is crucial.

Right to privacy (inferred from Article 21 but not stated explicitly): The Indian Supreme Court has declared the right to privacy to be a basic right. It can be utilised to defend women's autonomy and privacy in the context of cutting-edge reproductive healthcare technologies.

Ethical Considerations - Moral concerns about healthcare and reproductive rights are raised by the introduction of new technology. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), for instance, is a sex-selective technology that may raise concerns about gender-based discrimination and selective abortions. The Constitution mandates regulation of emerging technology to stop abuse and protect women's rights.

Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Administration [3]

This case addressed the issue of reproductive rights and the right to access safe abortion. The Supreme Court of India held that a woman's reproductive choices and decisions regarding abortion are protected under the fundamental right to privacy.

Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala [4]

This case involved the question of women's entry into the Sabarimala temple in Kerala. While not directly related to emerging technologies, it dealt with the issue of gender discrimination and the right to access religious spaces, which is linked to women's reproductive rights and autonomy.

Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India [5] consensual same-sex relationships in India was made legal thanks to this landmark ruling. Although it has nothing to do with reproductive rights specifically, this ruling recognises and upholds the values of autonomy and privacy, which have ramifications for women's access to healthcare and reproductive options.

National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India[6] Although the Supreme Court acknowledged the importance of self-identification and autonomy in terms of gender identity and expression, transgender rights were the main emphasis of this ruling. The significance of having a thorough grasp of reproductive rights that considers a range of gender identities and experiences is highlighted by this circumstance.

The Modern Era: Preformation And Genetic Determinism

A significant scientific advance that cast doubt on long-held notions about human nature and reproduction was the identification of human DNA in eggs. Before this finding, preformation theory held that since the new being was thought to be already complete, the driving force for its creation came from either the mother or the father. It was established that women contributed equally to the genetic make-up of their progeny after the identification of genetic coding in both sperm and eggs.

This finding did not, however, result in a greater appreciation of women's reproductive roles. Instead, it was interpreted as genetic determinism, which equated nuclear DNA with biological parentage. The significance of gestation was downplayed, and it was decided that the foetus' newly created DNA was what distinguished it. This view of reproduction has substantial ramifications for how pregnancy is governed by the law, including concerns about surrogacy, synthetic wombs, and fatal protection laws. [7]

In modern society, DNA is frequently viewed as a blueprint or design that represents the core of identity and individuality. The mother provides the required inputs and outputs as well as protection from damage, however it is believed that the foetus's development develops exclusively under the control of its DNA. This interpretation of the embryo as largely finished and waiting to develop, however, is oversimplified and does not adequately capture the intricate process of producing a new life. [8]

Two ideas connected to the comprehension of heredity and the development of organisms are preformation and genetic determinism. They both have historical perspectives, but they explain how qualities are inherited and how they affect a person's development differently.

The preformation idea, which was widely accepted in the 17th and 18th centuries, postulated that every organism exists in miniature, completely formed, inside the sperm or egg. This theory held that each creature had a prefabricated homunculus, a miniature version of itself, which grew and matured throughout gestation. Preformationists believed that these prefabricated items possessed fixed and permanent genetic characteristics.

Preformation and genetic determinism are two perspectives on inheritance and the processes of growth and change. They both use a historical perspective to history, but they give distinct explanations for how qualities are handed on and how they effect a person's growth.

According to the preformation theory, which gained popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries, each cell is present in the sperm or egg in a microscopic form that is already fully grown. According to this idea, each species began life as a homunculus, a miniature form of itself that grew larger during pregnancy. Pre-formationists believed that the genetic characteristics of these pre-made structures were fixed and immutable.

It is crucial to keep in mind that new theories have emerged as a result of scientific research that has disproven both preformation and genetic determinism.

With the inclusion of ideas like gene-environment interactions, epigenetics, and complex systems techniques, our understanding of heredity and development has deepened. Modern biology acknowledges that an organism's features and development are greatly influenced by both genetic and environmental variables.

The New Epigenetics: Science Resists The Dichotomies

Due to the issue of genetic determinism and the presentation of a more complicated picture of how genes interact with the environment to affect gene expression, the study of epigenetics has advanced in biology. Instead of seeing people as predefined entities with a fixed essence, epigenetics studies the complex interactions that occur between genes and other circumstances during development. This viewpoint challenges the idea that genetic inheritance is the only factor determining identity and parenthood, dismantling the distinction between nature and nurture.

Epigenetics, on the other hand, demonstrates how environmental influences can have heritable consequences that are transmitted from one generation to the next. This has been shown in experiments involving mice and humans, where dietary modifications or prenatal exposure to hunger resulted in heritable alterations in gene expression that affected health outcomes in succeeding generations. Despite challenging genetic determinism and the oversimplified idea that genes are the only factors influencing development, epigenetics does not replace the function of chromosomes in biological inheritance. Instead, it offers a more detailed picture of how people's features are shaped by the interactions between their genes and their environments.

According to the conventional conception of pregnancy, the fertilized egg develops into a self-sufficient, whole human being while the mother's womb supplies the necessary nutrients and eliminates waste. According to this viewpoint, creating an artificial womb would be as simple as providing it with life support, discounting the critical role that gestation plays in influencing fatal development.

The ideology and dichotomy that exalt genes as the ultimate essence of parenthood and endow them with a spiritual character that is superior to the physical are the sources of this viewpoint's distortion. This artificial divide connects with other detrimental dichotomies, such as the gender dichotomy.

It is crucial to understand that chromosomal replication and gestation are physical processes that give rise to who we are, and that the viability of artificial wombs is probably overstated as a result of undervaluing the significance of gestation in reproduction. Recognizing gestation's intricacy and developmental relevance is crucial rather than seeing it as a mystical process that can never be mechanized. [9]

Technologies Emerged In Reproductive Healthcare

The way in which women obtain reproductive healthcare is evolving as a result of new technologies.The field of reproductive healthcare has seen considerable progress thanks to a number of developing technologies. Among the significant technologies that have emerged are:

• Artificial intelligence (AI): By assisting in early detection, diagnosis, and individualised treatment approaches, AI has the potential to revolutionise reproductive healthcare. Large datasets can be analysed by machine learning algorithms to find patterns and risk factors related to problems with reproductive health.
• Genomic: Genomic technologies allow for the examination of a person's genetic information in order to find any potential dangers or genetic anomalies that could affect reproductive health. It enables individualised methods of reproductive medicine, such as genetic diagnostics and pre-implantation screening.
• Video conferencing, telephone calls, and other forms of digital communication facilitate patient-provider interactions in telemedicine. Women in remote places who lack convenient access to medical professionals can benefit greatly from this technology.

• Success rates for fertility treatments can be increased by the application of artificial intelligence (AI) for tracking fertility, predicting ovulation cycles, and analyzing patient data.

• Telemedicine: By providing remote consultations and monitoring, telemedicine has revolutionised access to reproductive healthcare. It makes it possible for women who live in remote or underserved locations to get access to specialised treatment, counselling, and prescriptions without having to make in-person visits.

• Wearable Technology: Women can track their fertility windows, track their menstrual cycles, and collect information about their reproductive health with the aid of wearable technology, such as smartwatches and fertility tracking applications. These tools can offer insightful information and support for managing fertility and family planning.
• In-vitro fertilisation (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), and cryopreservation of eggs and embryos are examples of assisted reproductive technologies (ART). These technologies have greatly improved success rates and given people and couples dealing with infertility new options.
• 3D printing: 3D printing has found use in the field of reproductive medicine, particularly in the creation of individually customised medical equipment including prosthetics, implants, and anatomical models. Anatomically realistic models have been produced using 3D printing in the field of reproductive medicine for surgery planning and patient education.

• Robotics and Minimally Invasive Surgery: Hysterectomies, myomectomies, and tubal ligations have become less invasive and more precise thanks to robotics and minimally invasive surgical procedures. These innovations lead to smaller incisions, less scarring, quicker recoveries, and better surgical results.

• The use of genetic testing to check for genetic diseases and forecast potential health concerns to the offspring is becoming increasingly common in reproductive healthcare.

• Intrauterine devices (IUDs) and hormonal implants, two of the most recent innovations in the field of contraception, offer highly effective birth control for a number of years.

• Reproductive organ replicas are being printed using 3D printing technology to aid with surgical and other procedure planning.

There are several applications for these technologies in women's reproductive health care. Artificial intelligence is utilized to forecast ovulation cycles and increase the success rate of in vitro fertilization (IVF), while telemedicine is used to give remote consultations for people seeking reproductive treatments. While 3D printing is used to make models for surgical planning, genetic testing is utilized to screen for potential health problems. Women now have more birth control options because to modern improvements in contraceptive devices. Reproductive healthcare for women is becoming more widely available, more efficient, and more effective as a result of technological advancements.

The field of reproductive healthcare has been profoundly impacted by technological advancements, which have opened up new options, improved diagnosis and treatments, and increased access to care. The following are some crucial new reproductive healthcare technologies:

Assisted reproductive technology that involves fertilising an egg with sperm outside the body is known as in vitro fertilisation (IVF). It has transformed the way infertility is treated and assisted numerous singles and couples in getting pregnant. IVF enables the selection of healthy embryos before to implantation, increasing the likelihood of a successful pregnancy while allowing for the screening of genetic diseases.

Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGT) is a method that checks embryos for genetic abnormalities before to implantation and is used in conjunction with IVF. It enables the detection of particular chromosomal abnormalities, genetic diseases, or aneuploidies. PGT lowers the danger of transferring genetic disorders to offspring and aids in the selection of embryos with a higher likelihood of maturing into healthy pregnancies.

Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT) is a screening procedure that can identify specific chromosomal anomalies in a growing foetus. It entails examining foetal DNA isolated from cell-free foetuses using a mother's blood sample. NIPT can provide early information about the risk of diseases like Down syndrome since it is less invasive than conventional diagnostic techniques like amniocentesis or chorionic villus collection.

Fertility applications and Wearables: As smartphone applications and wearables become more prevalent, people may track their menstrual cycles, keep an eye on fertility indications, and get individualised information about their reproductive health. By giving consumers more knowledge about their fertility patterns, these technologies enable them to make wise decisions regarding family planning, contraception, and pregnancy.

It is crucial to remember that, despite the considerable improvements and advantages offered by these technologies, they also raise moral questions regarding issues like privacy, consent, equity, and the potential for abuse. To guarantee that these technologies are utilised responsibly, respecting people's rights to reproductive freedom and encouraging fair access to healthcare, strong ethical frameworks and laws are required.

Views Of Various Authors On:

1. Uses Of Artificial Wombs

Artificial wombs, sometimes referred to as ectogenesis or in vitro gestation, are research tools designed to give developing embryos or foetuses a place to develop outside of the female body. Although they are still in the early phases of development, artificial wombs have the potential for a wide range of uses in the field of reproductive healthcare. A few possible applications for artificial wombs include:

Supporting Preterm Babies: Premature delivery is a major contributor to infant mortality and can have a negative impact on long-term health. Preterm infants might be able to prolong their gestation until they reach a viable stage in a controlled environment that simulates the conditions of a natural womb thanks to artificial wombs.

Enhancing Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART): The success rates may be improved by using artificial wombs of such as in vitro fertilisation (IVF), are ART treatments. Embryos could be implanted in an artificial womb rather than the uterus so they can develop and grow in ideal conditions before being later transferred to the mother's womb.

Research and development: In order to better understand early embryonic development and the factors that affect it, artificial wombs can offer researchers a unique platform. They present a chance to learn more about the physiology of the developing foetus, the development of its organs, and the results of different treatments or medications used throughout pregnancy.

High-Risk Pregnancies: Artificial wombs might be a temporary fix in situations where the mother's health is in jeopardy or when there are foetal abnormalities that are best addressed outside the womb. This could allow for closer monitoring and specialized care, reducing risks to both the mother and the fetus.

Ethical Considerations: Artificial wombs may raise ethical questions and offer alternatives for gestation outside of traditional pregnancy. They could provide a potential option for gestational surrogacy without the need for another woman's body to carry the pregnancy. Artificial gestation technology could serve as a liberating tool for women by relieving them of the physical and emotional burdens of pregnancy without transmitting these risks to other women. This technology could allow women to have children without experiencing the dangers associated with a typical pregnancy. Firestone advocated for a radical reorganization of society, which included the abolition of the institution of the family; liberation from pregnancy was only one factor supporting women's equality. However, other feminist authors have more explicitly praised reproductive technology as a path to sex equality, as it could reduce the mother's role in childbearing, thereby relieving women of their disproportionate physical burden. In addition, it could level the playing field in family life by permitting men to reproduce without a female partner or gestational surrogate. [10]

Concerns that artificial wombs would only be available to the wealthy could outweigh the potential benefits for women, including as freedom from the risks and burdens of pregnancy. As is already the case with costly neonatal treatments and infertility treatments, this disparity in access to reproductive technology could reinforce existing gender-based and class-based hierarchies. The societal separation of mothering duties into spiritual and mundane categories allows high-status women to pursue careers outside the home while outsourcing the actual care of their children to lower-status women. This separation could pave the way for women of greater status to assume roles typically held by men without threatening existing gender norms.

Others worry about the potential loss of money for poor women who engage in surrogacy contracts if artificial wombs are only available to the wealthy, despite the fact that some argue that this is still preferable to the unregulated surrogacy sector. Artificial wombs could either help or hurt women as a group, depending on issues including availability, regulation, and cultural attitudes toward gender and social stratification.

Some have proposed the use of artificial wombs as a possible answer to many problems associated with reproduction. Proponents of the technology claim that it would benefit women by giving them a choice other than the time-consuming and perhaps dangerous process of having a biological child. Critics, however, argue that this technology would likely only be accessible to the wealthy, thus reinforcing racial and economic disparities that already exist.[11]

Some people think that the fetus would be better off in an artificially conceived mother since it would be shielded from the mother's potentially harmful habits and nutrition. This argument, however, rests on a harmful societal stereotype of pregnant women and has been heavily attacked by feminist legal scholars. Finally, proponents of artificial wombs claim that they may be used as an alternative to abortion, allowing women to end undesirable pregnancies without having to go through the physical and mental agony that comes with having an abortion. This argument, however, is frequently linked to campaigns to outlaw abortion and forcibly remove embryos and fetuses from women's bodies for artificial gestation.

In conclusion, while there may be advantages to using artificial wombs, these should be weighed carefully against the possible damage they could do to women's agency and physical autonomy if applied in the current social and political climate.[12]

1. Technological Prospects

Since the 1920s, there have been sporadic predictions that artificial wombs are on the horizon, but no such technology has been implemented. Recent talks by ethicists and legal academics regarding ectogenesis appear to be unduly optimistic, notwithstanding breakthroughs in embryonic research and preterm newborn care. Although Dr. Yoshinori Kuwabara passed away in the year 2000 and Dr. Hung-Ching Liu's findings remain unpublished, both of them have been cited extensively in these discussions. Given this, it appears that the level of interest in artificial wombs may exceed their technical viability. In addition, talks about the technological obstacles of ectogenesis often presume that providing the right environment and nourishment is enough to support normal embryonic growth.

Exciting new opportunities and difficult new challenges await us as we move forward with reproductive technology. Gene editing, artificial wombs, and fertility treatments, on the one hand, offer the potential to revolutionize reproductive healthcare and give women more agency. Accessibility and fairness are two areas where these technologies raise serious ethical and social concerns. Policymakers, healthcare providers, scientists, and affected communities must collaborate and communicate openly to ensure that these advances are used responsibly and fairly. Finally, we need to prioritize safeguarding reproductive rights and advancing social justice, all the while welcoming the opportunities presented by scientific advancement.

The preservation of women's reproductive rights is essential in light of developing technology. To defend women's autonomy and decision-making in reproductive healthcare, strong regulatory frameworks, privacy protection, and informed consent requirements must be in place.[14]

Additionally, it is important to carefully consider any potential effects on marginalised communities. To close the gaps in reproductive healthcare and stop increasing discrepancies, accessibility, cost, and cultural sensitivity should be given top priority.

Emerging technologies' ethical ramifications for reproductive healthcare must be carefully explored. Discussions about assisted reproductive technologies, surrogacy, and reproductive genetic testing call for a balanced approach that balances technological breakthroughs against moral, societal, and legal issues.

Collaboration between healthcare professionals, legislators, and technology developers is essential. To make sure that these new technologies prioritise women's reproductive rights, protect their privacy, and support fair access to healthcare services, comprehensive frameworks and rules should be created.

We can empower women to make knowledgeable decisions about their reproductive health, improve access to high-quality treatment, and advance the general welfare of women and society at large by sensibly using the potential of developing technology.

The authors are students at National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam, Views are personal.

REFERENCES

[1] Shrage, L. (2002). From reproductive rights to Reproductive Barbie: Post-porn modernism and abortion. Feminist Studies, 28(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178495

[2] Anderson, E. (2020). The future of reproductive technology: Implications for women's rights. Journal of Human Rights, 19(4), 415-435.

[3] Suchita Srivastava and Anr Vs Chandigarh Administration (2009) 9 SCC 1

[4] Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala 2019 11 scc 1

[5] Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India AIR 2018 SC 4321

[6] National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India (2014) SCC 438

[7] Smith, P. B., &Buzi, R. S. (2014). Reproductive health professionals’ adoption of emerging technologies for health promotion. Health Informatics Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/1460458213492525 .

[8]. Ruse, M. (1996). Monad to man : the concept of progress in evolutionary biology. In Harvard University Press eBooks. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29901804

[9] Theories of Biological Development (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2022, June 3). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/theories-biological-development/

[10] Meloni, M., &Testa, G. (2014). Scrutinizing the epigenetics revolution. Biosocieties, 9(4), 431–456. https://doi.org/10.1057/biosoc.2014.22

[11] Rolfo, A., Nuzzo, A. M., De Amicis, R., Moretti, L., Bertoli, S., & Leone, A. (2020). Fetal–Maternal Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors: Correlation with Diet Intake andPregnancyOutcomes. Nutrients, 12(6),1744. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061744.

[12] N. Tuana, “The Weaker Seed: The Sexist Bias of Reproductive Theory” (Spring 1988) 3 Hypatia 35, 41.

[13] Berg, J. S., Khoury, M. J., & Evans, J. (2011). Deploying whole genome sequencing in clinical practice and public health: Meeting the challenge one bin at a time. Genetics in Medicine, 13(6), 499–504. https://doi.org/10.1097/gim.0b013e318220aaba.